Khentiamentiu: Copper for the early oxhide ingots: an Egyptian source?

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X25003013

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105268

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Highlights

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Lead isotope analysis possibly traces LM IB copper ingots to the Arabian-Nubian Shield.
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ANS Copper was likely traded via Egypt to Crete in oxhide or other ingot forms.
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Findings support the Minoan-Egypt trade interface during the early Late Bronze Age.
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Study underscores Egypt's pivotal role in Eastern Mediterranean copper exchange.

Abstract

The provenance of a group of Late Minoan IB copper oxhide ingots found on Crete remains a mystery in Mediterranean archaeometallurgical research. The distinctive isotopic signature of the Late Minoan IB Cretan ingots points to an ore source from the Neoproterozoic or early Cambrian eras, effectively excluding most of the well-documented copper sources within the Mediterranean region. Drawing upon a blend of legacy geochemical data, historical evidence, and archaeological findings, we argue that the yet-to-be-defined 'Old Copper' signature derives from the Arabian-Nubian Shield. Based on this interpretation, we suggest that copper from the Red Sea region was traded via Egypt to the Late Minoan IB Minoan palaces in the form of oxhide ingots. This interpretation sheds light on the development of the Minoan-Egypt trade interface at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age.

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Keywords

Late Bronze Age

Trade Networks

Copper Ingots

Arabian Nubian Shield

1. Introduction

Oxhide copper ingots found in Late Minoan IB ('LM IB') contexts on Crete represent some of the earliest attestations of the ingot form (Lo Schiavo et al., 2009, Sabatini, 2016, Sabatini and Lo Schiavo, 2020). Provenance studies using Lead Isotope Analysis ('LIA') have shown that the ingots derive from multiple copper sources, including Cyprus, Anatolia or the Aegean - specifically that of Lavrion Mining District on mainland Greece, and an unknown, geologically old source (henceforth the 'Old Copper' source; Gale and Stos-Gale, 1986, Gale, 1991, Stos-Gale et al., 1997). In 2011, Stos-Gale reiterated that this latter source remains unknown but proposed an origin in the Precambrian-to-Cambrian deposits of Anatolia, Afghanistan, Iran, or Southern Russia (2011: 225).

Sites on Crete where LM IB (or more generally Late Minoan I, "LM I") copper ingots have been recovered include Gournia, Aghia Triada, Kato Syme, Kato Zakros, Mochlos, Tylissos, Khania, Knossos, Kommos Sitias, Nirou Khani, and the Arkalokhori Cave (for more information on these contexts see Buchholz, 1959, Jones, 2007, Hakulin, 2013, Kaiser, 2013, Watrous et al., 2015). One other early copper oxhide ingot, miniature in size, was recovered in Stratum D at Tell Beit Mirsim in the Southern Levant (Albright, 1938: 62, Plate 41:13; Pulak, 2020). Whilst the excavator originally dated this stratum to the Middle Bronze Age III ('MB III') on the basis of stratigraphic considerations, it is likely later in date, and should be attributed to the Late Bronze Age I ('LB I'), parallel in date with the LM IB ingots from Crete (for a summary of the stratigraphic difficulties of Tell Beit Mirsim, see Bienkowski, 1989: 170–72).

Powell et al. (2024) recently argued that the Aghia Triada, Kato Zakros, and Tylissos ingots derived from copper extracted from the Southern Ural Mountains of Russia. In their study, the ingots were compared against isotopic values taken from galena and copper sulfide ores originating in the Volcanic Massive Sulfide ('VMS') deposits of the Southern and Central Ural range (Chernyshev et al., 2008, Tessalina et al., 2016). The authors suggested, based on a review of elemental concentrations, that variable Zn and consistent Co-Se-Te values are indicative of the Ural Cu-Zn VMS deposits. ²⁰⁴Pb values were not utilized in the analysis, perhaps due to heightened analytical variation in the use of legacy data (e.g., Albarède et al., 2020).

Transportation of Uralian copper over 3,300 km to Minoan Crete remains a tenuous hypothesis that requires a high burden of proof. If contact between the Southern Ural area and Crete existed, one would expect to find material evidence of such exchange elsewhere in the region or en route.¹ The geologic provenance for the 'Old Copper' source visible in select LM IB copper ingots is perhaps better sought elsewhere, among geographically closer mineral deposits. The goal of the present study is to reexamine the isotopic composition of the early Late Bronze Age ("LBA") copper ingots from Crete and the miniature ingot from Tell Beit Mirsim. Using an up-to-date database of LIA data and archaeological considerations, we argue that the source of the 'Old Copper' should be sought in the Eastern Mediterranean.

2. Methodologies: Lead isotope analysis

Provenance studies on metal artifacts in the Eastern Mediterranean have a long history primarily relying on LIA (Albarède et al., 2020, Artioli et al., 2016, Baron et al., 2014, Killick et al., 2020, Pernicka, 2014, Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009). This method compares the lead isotopic signature of artifacts against that of different ores. The reliability of the method is supported by studies demonstrating that lead isotopes do not undergo significant fractionation during the production process.

The limitations of LIA have been widely discussed (e.g. Budd et al., 1995, Knapp, 2000, Pollard, 2009 and more references above), particularly the 'overlap problem', where different ore sources share the same geological age and thus have a similar isotopic signature, and the 'mixing problem', where extraneous lead is added for alloying purposes or through recycling (Baron et al., 2014, Kaufman, 2013, Klein and Hauptmann, 1999, Radivojević et al., 2019, Shalev, 2009, Yahalom-Mack et al., 2023a).

To address challenges associated with traditional lead isotope studies, this study utilizes values normalized to ²⁰⁴Pb, thus enabling the use of a two-stage geologic age model to interpret isotopic data. Based on a closed Pb-Pb system, Stacey and Kramers (1975) showed that the radiogenic ingrowth of lead isotopes is linearly dependent on time, resulting in predictable arrays called isochrons, as seen in the ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb vs. ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb plots. Isochrons are modeled age lines dependent upon the natural depletion of ²³⁵U and ²³⁸U, and are distinguished from mixtures of old Pb, analytical bias, and/or low-temperature processes, which precede interpretation errors (Albarède et al., 2020). Additional variability between ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb (µ), ²³²Th/²³⁸U (κ), and Model Age values can also be used to fingerprint specific ore sources (see discussion in Albarède et al., 2012: 854). Model Ages denotes the geologic age since a mineral deposit or geological source separated from its parent reservoir and are calculated using Stacey and Kramer's (1975) model based on the isotopic evolution of lead over time.

By plotting Model Ages versus ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, six of the seven LIA variables – ²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, ²⁰⁸Pb, µ, κ, and Model Ages, are visible on a single plot, where only the variability of κ, a less diagnostic measure in Mediterranean copper sources, is not visible. The Model Age vs ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb plot can further be utilized to identify potential mixing patterns between a geological very old and a geologically young source. In contrast to the traditional biplots, samples containing radiogenic values may plot across a broad isotopic space, and may be virtually indistinguishable from samples which are mixed between geologically very-old and very-young sources (see below).

3. Results: A Newly Proposed Origin for the Geologically 'Old Copper' Signature

LIA is most effective when using large datasets of results to identify clustering and potential mixing effects (e.g. Eshel et al., 2021, Albarede et al., 2024). Therefore, the dataset used in this study includes isotopic results from 101 whole and fragmented ingots found in LM IB contexts including four from Gournia (five replicates), 18 from Aghia Triada (2 replicates), one from Kato Syme, six from Kato Zakros, 63 from Mochlos, and one each from Tylissos, and Nirou Khani (Fig. 1; Gale and Stos-Gale, 1986, Stos-Gale, 2011, Stos-Gale et al., 1997, Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009, Gale et al., 2007a, Jansen et al., 2018; note, select ingots not congruent with the 'Old Copper' source are identified in the form of a bun). The miniature ingot recovered at Tell Beit Mirsim is also included here (Pulak, 2020), as are five samples from Arkalochori Cave on Crete (see ingot references above). Although the latter can only be broadly dated to the LM I, they exhibit the same 'Old Copper' signature and may be tentatively related to the Cretean ingots recovered from more secure contexts (Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009).

The copper ingots uniformly display Pb concentrations below 0.2 %, as determined through Atomic Absorption analysis (Mangou and Ioannou, 2000: Table 3). Notably, the ingot from Tell Beit Mirsim exhibits a slightly lower Pb concentration of 0.03 %, measured using ICP-MS (Pulak, 2020: Table 13.1).

As stated above, the majority of the LM IB copper ingots from Crete exhibit isotopic signatures indicative of three sources: 1) a geologically young, low µ source, consistent with Cypriot ores likely associated with early Late Cypriot ("LC") mining, such as at Politko-Phorades (Fig. 2; Knapp et al., 2001; Knapp and Kassianidou, 2008); 2) a geologically young, high µ source, indicative of Aegean/Anatolian ores, specifically from the Lavrion Mining District; 3) an unknown, geologically very-old, low µ value source (for additional references on provenance details, see Gale and Stos-Gale, 1986, Stos-Gale et al., 1997, Gale et al., 2007a). The samples consistent with the 'Old Copper' source include 9 ingots from Aghia Triada (and two replicatates), one from Kato Zakros, one from Nirou Khani, and one from the Arkalochori Cave. Nine additional samples plot on the Model Age vs ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb graph between the geologically young and geologically old groups, suggestive of either mixed sources or a source which exhibits various periods of lead deposition across a large geologic timeframe (Fig. 3).1, 2 One sample from Aghia Triada (726 beta) exhibits a relatively high µ value (∼10.5).

Past studies have demonstrated that isotopic values characterizing the 'Old Copper' ingots are inconsistent with the majority of copper ores in the Mediterranean and Ancient Near East (for references, see above), effectively 'ruling out' the primary ore producing localities of such regions as the source of the copper. The 'Old Copper' ingots exhibit lower ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb, and µ values, indicative of a distinct source depleted of ²³⁵U and ²³⁸U. Such values differ from other, well-researched Neoproterozoic or early Cambrian deposits such as in the Arabah Valley, Sardinia, Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula (Artioli et al., 2020, Asael et al., 2012, Bode et al., 2023, García de Madinabeitia et al., 2021, Stos-Gale, 2011, Valera et al., 2005).

Expanding the dataset to include isotopic data from VMS ores and granitic host rocks from select localities in the Arabian-Nubian Shield ('ANS') reveals a significant consistency between these and the 'Old Copper' ingots (Bokhari and Kramers, 1982, Delevaux et al., 1967, Ellam et al., 1990, Stacey et al., 1980, Stacey and Stoeser, 1983, Sultan et al., 1992). The ANS is a massive exposure of Neoproterozoic crustal block underlying the region of the Red Sea in northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (e.g. Hamimi et al., 2021). Its northernmost reach is the central-to-south Sinai Peninsula and the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Hamimi et al., 2021). Within the Sinai Peninsula, limited lead isotopic measurements of copper minerals are available. From the available samples, a select few overlap the 'Old Copper' signature, specifically from Wadi Tarr (Hauptmann et al., 1999, Ilani and Rosenfeld, 1994, Hauptmann, 2007, Segal et al., 2000, Segal et al., 2004). The consistency between this locality and the LB I ingots is reinforced by similar isotoipc values exhibited leached K-feldspar host rock samples from the ANS Wadi Kid Ring Structure (Moghazi et al., 1998). The Wadi Kid region in southeast Sinai is characterized by a volcano-sedimentary sequence with large-scale metal zoning in skarn-type mineralizations and Cu–Zn–Co associations related to the Precambrian granititoid intrusions (Helmy et al., 2014). A single copper ore sample from Wadi Abu Greida in the Eastern Desert also plots slightly below the 'Old Copper' group.

Further evidence for ancient exploitation of the 'Old Copper' source within the region of Egypt is suggested by lead isotope data from Egyptian and Nubian objects (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). First, select isotopic samples of Old Kingdom and A-Group Lower Nubian arsenical copper objects are consistent with the 'Old Copper' source (see discussion below; Anfinset, 2010: 163–164; Kmošek et al., 2018, Odler et al., 2021, Rademakers et al., 2018). Second, later Egyptian and Nubian objects and metallurgical byproducts, dated to the 2nd millennium BCE or between the First Intermediate Period to the New Kingdom, Classic to Middle Kerma Periods, as well as C-Group to New Kingdom objects from Aniba, exhibit an isotopic trajectory spread across the same swath of isotopic space as the copper ingots. Although none of the later objects' values plot to Model Ages which directly overlap the 'Old Copper' signature, there may be a significance to the trend (Odler and Kmošek, 2020, Rademakers et al., 2021, Rademakers et al., 2022). Select objects and metallurgical byproducts (e.g., EA-MR-191, EA-MR-176, KF_4, KF_8, ÄMUL 3952, ÄMUL 5515, ÄMUL 5513, ÄMUL 4701, ÄMUL 4697) plot to Model Age values of approximately 313 to 424 Mya, indicating a Pb contribution from a geologically older source similar to the LB I copper ingots from Crete and Tell Beit Mirsim.

4. Discussion

4.1. The 'Old Copper' source

As demonstrated in this study, the lead isotope signature of the 'Old Copper' LM IB Cretan ingots is consistent with that of ores, galena, feldspars, and other host rocks of the ANS, suggesting that these deposits may be the geological source of the copper used to produce the ingots. The ANS features more than 50 VMS copper deposits alongside rich concentrations of minor elements such as Au, Ag, Zn, Fe, Pb, Co, and As that should be considered as plausible candidates for the 'Old Copper' source (Hussein and el Sharkawi, 1990; Helmy et al., 2014, Johnson et al., 2017, Faisal et al., 2022, Hassan Ahmed, 2022).³ Such ANS deposits remain poorly characterizied isotopically, with only a limited number of pubilshed data points from select copper mineralizations (see references above). However, the general isotopic consistency of the Old Kingdom objects with this source implies that ANS ores were exploited in Egypt already in the 3rd millennium BCE, long before the LB I.

Amongst the ANS mineralizations, copper deposits in the Sinai Peninsula could be the source of the 'Old Copper' oxhide ingots from Crete and Tell Beit Mirsim. The Sinai Peninsula is made up of alkaline ring complexes and alkaline granites occurring as small intrusive bodies emplaced towards the end of the Pan-African orogeny, dated to the Neoproterozoic and early Cambrian (ca. 650–500 Mya), and the opening of the Red Sea (35–25 Mya) (Harris, 1982). Three ring complexes are significant: the Iqna Ring Structure, St. Katharina Ring Structure, and the larger Wadi Kid Ring Structure, all of which feature late Neoproterozoic age deposits (Helmy et al., 2014). Large quantities of Au-Cu-S deposits, with fewer Au-Cu-Zn and Cu-Au-Zn type deposits, occur throughout the three ring complexes (Mamedov et al., 2014). Currently, copper ores and host rocks from the Wadi Kid Ring Structure in the Sinai Peninsula show the most consistency with the 'Old Copper' ingots and are the best candidates for the 'Old Copper' source Fi.

The isotopic properties and date of exploitation of copper deposits of Wadi Tarr are not well characterized (only two data points are available) although they have been previously mentioned as a possible copper source (Hauptmann et al., 1999, Ilani and Rosenfeld, 1994, Hauptmann, 2007, Rademakers et al., 2021, Segal et al., 2004). In any event, the only mineralization thus far analyzed was rich in As, but, other than one ingot from Aghia Triada, As is absent in significant quantities from the 'Old Copper' ingots.

Recent archaeometallurgical expeditions have documented extensive exploitation and production evidence dating to the Middle and New Kingdoms at select localities in the west and central parts of the Sinai Peninsula, demonstrating the region's importance as a center of Bronze Age metallurgy (Abdel-Motelib et al., 2012, Harrell and Mittelstaedt, 2015, Mumford, 2015, Tallet, 2018; see summary in Odler, 2023). Specifically, Hikade (1998) estimated that, over a period of 150 years during the New Kingdom, ca. 1,000 tons of copper was produced in the region. The most prominent remnants of MBA and LBA Egyptian activities in the Sinai are found at Serabit el-Khadim. Thought to primary be a turquoise mining operation, an Egyptian temple was founded at the site during the 12th Dynasty, but whose usage continued into the New Kingdom (Petrie, 1906, Tallet, 2003, Mumford, 2006). Notably, the site preserved evidence of secondary metal production, including stone bellow, tuyère and crucible fragments, as well as stone molds for the casting of weapon, tools, and ingots (?) (Beit-Arieh, 1985). While Beit-Arieh (1985) considered these to be indicative of the sites' importance in copper production, these activities may have been subsidiary to the turquoise production. Copper extraction likely took place elsewhere, for example, in Bir Nasib I/II, located five kilometers to the west. At the Bir Nasib sites, habitation remains were found, along copper and turquoise mines, and smelting sites, the most significant of which extended approximately 50 by 50 meters, signifying intensive local extraction and production (Rothenberg, 1987, Tallet, 2006). Forced-air intake furnaces were found at Wadi Kharig, Seh Nasb, Wadi Malha, and Bir Nasib (Tallet, 2011), a technology first employed in the Eastern Mediterraean during the MBA and LBA (e.g., Kassianidou, 2011, Knapp et al., 2001, Yahalom-Mack, 2019, Chernyshev et al., 2008; for a recently published late Middle Kingdom tuyère from Elephantine Island, see Odler and Kmošek, 2024).

The Eastern Desert presents an equally viable candidate for the 'Old Copper' source. Specifically, the Wadi Abu Greida deposit also features one lead isotope sample with an 'Old Copper' signature. Wadi Abu Greida is one of several mining localities (e.g., Wadi Hamama, Wadi Semna) in the north of the Egyptian Eastern Desert. While there is evidence for ancient exploitation, it is dated to the Predynastic, Old Kingdom, and later Ptolemaic and Classical periods (Abdel-Motelib et al., 2012: 30–32), which presently excludes this deposit from being the source of the 'Old Copper' ingots. However, gold deposits with malachite lining in the Neoproterozoic basement of the Eastern Desert were intensely exploited throughout the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms (e.g., Klemm and Klemm, 2012: 604-611). These could have been exploited for copper, concurrently with the gold extraction.

Evidence for the exploitation of Sinai or Eastern Desert deposits is indirectly reinforced by the consistency between 'Old Copper' ores and select Egyptian and Nubian arsenical copper objects dated to the 3rd millennia BCE and the 'Old Copper' signature (Fig. 5; Anfinset, 2010, Odler and Kmošek, 2020). Even though, the LM IB ingots (excluding C712 from Aghia Triada) generally have low arsenic concentrations, their comparison to the arsenical copper objects of the Old Kingdom is possible (Mangou and Ioannou, 2000: 213, Table 3). If we consider the arsenic in the objects as deriving from speiss or arsenopyrite, which generally contains limited Pb concentrations between 0.2 to 1.1 %, the resulting isotopic signature is likely primarly dependent upon lead contributions from the copper ores, thus the addition of arsenic-containing minerals will not necessarily affect the final lead isotopic composition of the object (Rehren et al., 2012, Thornton et al., 2009, Rademakers et al., 2024).

Objects dated to the First Intermediate Period through New Kingdom and Kerma Period, as well as objects from Aniba are not consistent with the 'Old Copper' source. Nonetheless, 2nd millennia BCE objects exhibit an isotopic pattern trailing into geologically older space. This could be due to an episode of small-scale exploitation of minor ANS sources which may have been contemporary with the exploitation of younger mineralizations within the ANS (e.g., Ixer, 1999).

4.2. The question of mixing

The results of the present study raise the possibility that several of the LM IB ingots were either formed of copper from more than one source or formed from a highly radiogenic copper ore. Geologically old ores enable multiple lead deposition processes to occur over their lifetimes, often resulting in radiogenic signatures which transverse into higher isotopic values (for example, see ores from the Timna and Amir-Avonra Formations in the Arabah Valley; Asael et al., 2012, Bode et al., 2023). At least nine ingot samples fall into this intermediate space, between the ANS and the geologically young samples. A marked example of this phenomenon are the ingots recovered from Aghia Triada and Kato Zakros, which present geologic ages spanning from ca. 650 Mya to 0 Mya and 586 Mya to 20 Mya, respectively. The ingot from Tell Beit Mirsim falls in such a space, specifically on a mixing line between a younger geologic source and the ANS. Significantly, the isotopic trend created by the ingot assemblage, from the 'Old Copper' source to the geologically young, higher µ, is consistent with the isotopic values of sampled Egyptian and Nubian objects and metallurgical byproducts. It is thus possible, that the younger source, previously identified as Lavrion, is in fact the radiogenic tail of the ANS (see Fig. 2 for the distribution of Egyptian copper ores).

Another interpretation is that the ingots may have been derived from two or more copper sources – a geologically old and geologically young source – intentionally created by pooling ores or ingots together. While ingots are typically interpreted as displaying a 'pure' isotopic signature, several studies have highlighted LBA examples, resulting from recycling, alloying, or the pooling of ores (Begemann et al., 2001: 56, 66–69; Gale et al., 2007a, Hauptmann et al., 2002, Hauptmann et al., 2016). Recent mixing models have demonstrated the effectiveness of utilizing combined isotopic results and elemental concentrations for the identification of mixed sources (e.g., Albarede et al., 2024, Berger et al., 2019, Eshel et al., 2021, Yahalom-Mack et al., 2023b). Unfortunately, while many of the Cretan ingots have been analyzed for elemental concentrations, it is difficult to correlate these elemental results with the isotopic studies (Gale and Stos-Gale, 1986: 89, 93, Table 4; Mangou and Ioannou, 2000: 213, Table 3).

Another complicating factor is that copper ores from individual deposits in the Sinai Peninsula and Eastern Desert have been sampled less frequently relative to other known deposits in the wider region (e.g., Cyprus, Arabah Valley). The low intensity of testing has resulted in a limited quantity of samples that are dispersed across the full range of isotopic space. Regardless, the current database of Egyptian ores does not allow for differentiating between intentionally mixed samples and radiogenic samples.

4.3. The early LBA Minoan-Egypt interface

Tracing the 'Old Copper' ingots to the ANS, if accepted, would reinforce existing evidence for an intense trade connection between Crete and Egypt during the later 16^th to 15^th centuries BCE. Such trade intensified during the LM IB, after the destruction of Akrotiri, a strategic Minoan trade node, caused by the Thera volcanic eruption (Knappett et al., 2011). The destruction of Akrotiri severed the vital metal trade from the Cyclades, leading to the procurement of resources from mainland Greece and new sources in the east, such as Anatolia and Cyprus (Gale et al., 2007b).

Archaeological and iconographic evidence for contacts between Egypt and Crete during LM IB is ample. For instance, Minoan pottery is found at Egyptian sites such as Tell el-Dab'a, Memphis, Kom Rabi'a, Sedment, Kahun, Abydos, and Deir el-Medina, as well as in Lower Nubia, at Arminna and Aniba, and Upper Nubia, at the capital of Kerma (Kemp and Merrillees, 1980, Barrett, 2009 and references therein; Johnston, 2016: 478–85; Helmbold-Doyé and Seiler, 2020; for a recent review, see Cole, 2022). Iconographic similarities were noted between objects found in the tomb of Queen Ahhotep (ca. 1530 BCE) and Minoan Crete, including a depiction of a winged griffin on a gold-plated ceremonial axe, which parallels the paintings of griffins near the throne room of Knossos, as well as a model ship fashioned in silver, which closely resembles those in Minoan frescos (Judas, 2022, Kelder et al., 2018, Wachsmann, 2022).

Depictions of Minoans (Keftiu) feature in Egyptian mortuary iconography during the reigns of Thutmose III and Hatshepsut and adorned the walls of the Tombs of Senmut, Useramun, and Rekhmire (Tomb 100). In the latter, a procession is depicted, with participants carrying red and grey oxhide-shaped ingots (interpreted as copper and tin/lead, respectively), as well as ivory, jewelry, and distinctive LM IB ceramic vessels (Dziobek, 1994, Hall, 1903, Hall, 1909, De Garis Davies, 1943). In the Tomb of Menkheperreseneb, a figure in a procession of three foreign figures is adorned with Minoan dress and hairstyles and labelled as a Cretan native (Davies and de Garis Davies, 1933: Plate IV and V). Panagiotopoulos (2001: 274) has argued that such scenes represent a historical reality which was then depicted by the Egyptian scribes, as opposed to being ideological manipulations. According to this view, the depictions reinforce the possibility that the ingots were produced elsewhere and brought by the Keftiu to Egypt. Even if oxhide ingots were produced in Egypt at this time, Cypriot copper could have also been brought to Egypt part of gift exchanges aimed at building international diplomatic and economic ties (Cappellini and Caramello, 2010).

A more speculative possibility is that Egyptians depicted oxhide ingots in the hands of the Keftiu because the Keftiu were the consumers of the objects that the Egyptians themselves produced. Egyptian artists used symbols, often mixed between local and foreign elements, to create imageries that resonated with Egyptian audiences (Matić, 2014, Matić, 2019, Wachsmann, 1987). As oxhide ingots were objects that represented wealth and utility, they were considered worthy of Pharaonic tribute not just because they derived from foreign peoples, but because local production was state-controlled. There are several examples of 'provocative' or 'illogical' gift-exchange, for example, in Amarna Letter EA33, the Pharoah of Egypt sends copper to the king of Alashiya (on Cyprus) or where ivory is sent from Cyprus to Egypt, a region considered to be rich in ivory itself (Graziadio, 2014: 11 and references therein).

Further archaeological evidence for the intensifying contacts between Crete and the Eastern Mediterranean during LM IB/LB I includes Minoan objects found in the Levant and Cyprus (Knapp et al., 2022;see Banyai, 2022 for a recent synopsis). Minoan-style ceramics dating to the LM IA-B are known on Cyprus at the sites of Kouklia Palaepahos, Limassol Kapsalos, and Toumba tou Skourou, and in the Levant at Ugarit, Alalakh, Tell Sukas, Amman Airport, Byblos, Kamid el-Loz, Hazor, Pella, Tel Ta'annek, Tel Michal, Gezer, Lachish, and Ashdod (Johnston, 2016: 478–85). A rare but important indication of Minoan cultural practice in the Levant is seen at Gezer, where two larnakes – a distinctive form of Minoan burial practice– were recovered in a communal grave dated to the LB IB (Seger, 1988: 129-146).

Levantine and Egyptian finds in LM IB palatial centers show the reciprocal side of this relationship. The bulk of LM I/II eastern imports into Crete, primarily stone vessels and ivory, are concentrated at Knossos, but others have been recovered across other important sites and palatial centers, such as Poros Katsambas, Kato Zakros, Palaikastro, Pyrgos, Kommos, Mallia, and Aghia Triada (Cline, 1991: 18-19; see recent appraisal by Murray, 2022 and references therein). Notable examples of Aegyptiaca at Minoan palatial sites include three alabastra and a diorite bowl from Knossos; a porphyrite bowl, an alabastron converted into a rhyton, and ostrich egg rhyta from Kato Zakros; ceramic jars at Kommos; an alabastron from Mallia; an amulet and bowl at Pyrgos, and an alabastron from Aghia Triadha, whilst at Mochlos, gold beads were found in an ivory box alongside two objects likely originating in Egypt, and dated to the LM IB (Betancourt et al., 2017). Furthermore, considerable quantities of amethyst were recovered in MM-LM I contexts, such as at Poros Katsambas, the harbor of Knossos. These were attributed to an Egyptian source since the material does not occur naturally in the Aegean (Phillips, 2009). Such objects are high value, but rare finds indicative of small-scale gift exchange. A notable exception are the sherds of Canaanite transport jars dating broadly to the LM I that were identified in the southeast administrative wing at Kato Zakros (Rutter, 2014).

Copper was prized during the LM IB on Crete, as attested by the massive quantities of preserved copper-based ingots and objects, estimated to total ca. 1500 kilos, attributed to the MM III-LM IB (Hakulin, 2013: 121). However, copper itself is not found locally in meaningful quantities and required importation (Stos and Gale, 2006: 316). Nonetheless, it is clear that secondary processing of copper occurred extensively on the island. More than a dozen structures providing evidence of industrial activities were excavated at LM IB Gournia, many of which contained remains of bronze production (Watrous and Heimroth, 2011: 204-208 and references therein). Similar bronzeworking contexts have been found at the Artisan Quarters at Mochlos and the Agora at Malia (ibid.). Two Linear B tablets found at Aghia Triada (HT 97, HT 119) features lists of coppersmiths or quantities of copper for distribution. Notably, the heading of HT 97a indicates that the smiths are listed according to the intended location of where the copper was to be distributed, such as Ka-nu-ti, identified as Aghia Triada, and Pa-i-to, understood to be nearby Phaistos (Watrous, 1984: 130). It is tempting to reconstruct this text as documenting the receipt of foreign copper at the southern port of Aghia Triada, to be distributed to other centers. Such a port would have been a primary node in the southernly transmission of goods to and from Egypt and the Levant.

On Crete, the 'Old Copper' signature was only utilized in the LM IB alongside other Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean copper sources (from Anatolia, the Aegean, the Cyclades, and, possibly, the Arabah Valley; see Gale et al., 2007a: 108; Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009, data from OXALID). If we are correct in assigning a provenance of the 'Old Copper' ingots and other geologically younger ingots from LM IB Crete to the ANS, then the large quantity of ingots indicate a brief yet intense exchange of wealth between the LM IB Minoan palatial centers and their eastern counterparts. Such a surge of Eastern Mediterranean copper, from Cyprus and the ANS region, denotes a different economic and political relationship than had previously been understood, characterized by the transmission of small, valuable goods or the exchange of artists (e.g., Laffineur, 1998, Murray, 2022, Shaw and Mellink, 1995, Sherratt, 1994). Whether the producers and distributors of the copper were Egyptian, Levantine, Cypriot, or Nubian, is unknown. However, with this new interpretation, we can suggest that the LM IB ingots represent evidence for the beginning of the intense palace-to-palace, West-to-East gift exchange networks known during the later centuries of the LBA (e.g., Sherratt, 2016a, Sherratt, 2016b). Conversely, if the prime distributors of copper in the Eastern Mediterranean should be ascribed to seafaring Cypriots sailing westwards, Minoan sailors voyaging to the east, or other Mediterranean agents, the accompanying LM IB copper ingots could be considered as the beginning of LBA enterprising maritime ventures focused on the mercantile exchange of metals as wealth.

There remains an open question as to the origins of the oxhide ingot form, which cannot be resolved based solely on geochemical data. Future research should focus on elucidating the dating and extent of ANS mining exploitation; the nature of early New Kingdom metallurgical production; and the mechanisms of exchange through which the LM IB copper ingots circulated. We hope that this study serves as a prime impetus for future archaeometallurgical discoveries in the ANS region (e.g., Ben-Yosef, 2018).

5. Conclusion

This study investigates isotopic signatures of copper ingots found in LM IB contexts on Crete. By using an expanded legacy lead isotopic database of copper ores, galena, feldspars, and host-rocks from the Arabian Nubian Shield, it is proposed that this region, particularly copper sources in the Sinai Peninsula and the Eastern Desert,which were intensely exploited during the Middle and New Kingdom, constitute the primary source of the 'Old Copper' signature. Consequently, an Egyptian origin for the oxhide ingots traded to Minoan Crete aligns well with the broader exchange of materials such as pottery, stone vessels, and amethyst between the two regions, which intensified in the early New Kingdom, and the depiction of oxhide ingots in Egyptian iconography. Lead isotopic ratios of Egyptian copper artifacts from the Old Kingdom through the New Kingdom reinforce this interpretation. The study therefore illuminates the trade networks and resource exploitation strategies of the LM IB/LB I, and underscores Egypt's pivotal role in the production and distribution of copper exchanged in the Eastern Mediterranean during this period.

Funding Statement.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Daniel M. Finn-Kandel: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Naama Yahalom-Mack: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was possibly thanks to funding provided by the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The authors wish to thank Yigal Erel for his insightful comments of the initial draft, Arlette David for her assistance regarding the nature of Egyptian-Cretean interactions, and Penina Myerson for her meticulous comments and editing. Lastly, we are grateful to Zofia Stos-Gale for assistance with our questions, and for both her and the late Noël Gale's pioneering work on lead isotopic analysis, analysis of the ingots included within this study, and publication of the larger OXALID database. This study was partially funded by the Nahman Avigad Chair in Biblical Archaeology and the Philip and Muriel Berman Center for Biblical Archaeology, as well as a scholarship provided to DMFK by Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School for Advanced Studies in the Humanities.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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Copper for the early oxhide ingots: an Egyptian source? - ScienceDirect

Copper for the early oxhide ingots: an Egyptian source?☆