Around 4,000 years ago, women in Nubia were using tumplines, a form of head strap, to carry around goods and young children.
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An Egyptian-French archaeological mission has made a series of highly significant discoveries at the Ramesseum temple (commissioned by Ramses II), located on the western bank of Luxor, Egypt. The discoveries, the result of cooperation between the Conservation and Documentation Sector of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, the French National Center for Research, and the Sorbonne University, have brought to light new elements that allow for a deeper understanding of the history and function of this iconic temple.
Among the main findings are a series of tombs from the Third Intermediate Period, storerooms for olive oil, honey, and fats, as well as wine cellars. Additionally, textile and stone workshops have been identified, along with kitchens and bakeries. These elements point to a much more complex economic and administrative activity than previously documented.
One of the most remarkable discoveries has been that of the so-called House of Life, an educational institution attached to the temple. This find is exceptional not only for providing the architectural layout of this teaching center, but also for yielding a collection of archaeological objects related to educational activity, such as remains of drawings and school games. This is the first physical evidence of the existence of a school within the Ramesseum, also known as the Temple of Millions of Years.
In the eastern sector of the temple, structures were found that, according to archaeologists, would have functioned as administrative offices. Meanwhile, studies carried out on the buildings and storerooms in the northern part indicate that olive oil, honey, and fats were stored there. A large number of wine jar labels were also found, confirming the use of the area as a wine cellar.
In the northeastern area of the temple, numerous tombs from the Third Intermediate Period were discovered. These contain funerary chambers, burial shafts with canopic jars, well-preserved funerary objects, nested sarcophagi, and a total of 401 ushabti figurines carved in ceramic. Human bones were also found scattered in the area.
The Minister of Tourism and Antiquities, Sharif Fathi, praised the mission's efforts to reveal new aspects of the religious and social role of the Ramesseum in ancient Egypt. For his part, the secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, Mohamed Ismail, emphasized the importance of these discoveries, as they provide key information about the temple's complex history, founded during the New Kingdom, under the reign of the Ramesside pharaohs.
Ismail explained that the temple not only served as a place of worship, where rituals in honor of the pharaoh were carried out even during his lifetime, but also fulfilled administrative and economic functions. The new evidence points to the existence of a complete hierarchy of civil officials who managed the redistribution of stored or manufactured goods, which benefited the local community, including the artisans of Deir el-Medina under the control of royal authority.
The studies also confirm that the site was already occupied before Ramses II built the temple, and that it was later reused as a large priestly necropolis after being looted. In later periods, during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, it was used by stonecutters.
The head of the mission on the Egyptian side, Hisham El-Leithy, announced the re-exploration of the tomb of "Sehetep-ib-Re," located in the northwestern sector of the temple. This tomb, originally discovered in 1896 by British archaeologist Quibell, dates from the Middle Kingdom and preserves funerary depictions of the owner on its walls.
The team has also completed the full restoration of the southern sector of the temple, from the hypostyle hall to the sanctuary, including the first courtyard. In this area, the pieces of the colossus of Tuya, mother of Ramses II, were reassembled and placed in their original location. Similarly, parts of the colossus of Ramses II himself were reconstructed and restored.
On the French side of the mission, archaeologist Christian Leblanc detailed that restoration work was also carried out on the royal palace adjacent to the temple's first courtyard. Thanks to this work, the original layout of the building was recovered, which included a reception hall and a throne room. The king used this space to hold audiences during his stay at the temple.
In the area of the second monumental gate, part of the granite lintel was discovered, depicting a deified Ramses II before the god Amun-Ra, as well as remains of the decorative frieze that originally rested on a cornice with monkey figures.
The mission also cleared the northern and southern processional paths, where several findings from the Third Intermediate Period appeared. It was identified that this part of the temple was flanked by statues of Anubis reclining over small chapels. Many of these sculptures have been recovered and restored.
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Ziv Nitzan was on a hike with her family when a rock on the ground caught her eye. But when the 3-year-old girl picked up the small stone and cleaned it off, she realized it was no ordinary rock.
Instead, the toddler had chanced upon a 3,800-year-old treasure, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) announced this week.
Archaeologists say Nitzan picked up an ancient Canaanite scarab that dates to the Middle Bronze Age. When her siblings realized what she'd found, they asked their parents to take a look. The family then handed the scarab over to the government.
"There are thousands of stones over there and it was upside down, but somehow out of all those stones, she picked this one," the girl's mother, Sivan Nitzan, tells the Washington Post's Vivian Ho.
Scarabs are small, decorated objects that originated in ancient Egypt. They're typically shaped like dung beetles, which ancient Egyptians considered a sacred symbol of new life, per the IAA.
These beetles create dung balls or dung pats, then lay their eggs inside or nearby. When the eggs hatch, the larvae feed on the dung.
Ancient Egyptians also revered dung beetles because the rolling of the dung balls reminded them of the sun god rolling the sun across the sky, according to the Israel Museum. Because they mistakenly believed the beetles could spontaneously reproduce, they also connected the bugs with the primary god of creation.
In the Egyptian language, the beetle's name stems from the verb for "to be created" or "to come into being," per the IAA.
During the Middle Bronze Age, scarabs were used as seals and amulets, as Daphna Ben-Tor, curator of Egyptian archaeology at the Israel Museum, says in the IAA statement.
"They were found in graves, in public buildings and in private homes," Ben-Tor adds. "Sometimes, they bear symbols and messages that reflect religious beliefs or status."
Nitzan discovered the scarab during a family outing at the Tel Azekah archaeological site near the city of Beit Shemesh. Over the past 15 years, archaeologists have unearthed evidence of "many changing cultures over the course of history" at Tel Azekah, per the IAA. The Bible also references the area around Tel Azekah as the site of the famed battle between David and Goliath.
Recent archaeological findings suggest Tel Azekah was home to "one of the most important cities in the Judean Lowlands" during the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages, says Oded Lipschits, an archaeologist at Tel Aviv University who is leading the excavation work at the site, in the statement.
Located high above sea level, Tel Azekah was once the "control point of a strategic junction of roads" that traveled in all directions, according to the website of the archaeological expedition at the site. "For millennia, Azekah flourished and grew, as its community benefited from Azekah's rich natural and strategic location."
The scarab is just one of the many Egyptian and Canaanite artifacts discovered at Tel Azekah, which attests to the "close ties and cultural influences between Canaan and Egypt during that period," Lipschits adds.
The IAA thanked Nitzan for her discovery by presenting her with a certificate of appreciation for good citizenship. The agency also plans to highlight the scarab during an upcoming exhibition at the Jay and Jeanie Schottenstein National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel.
It will be placed alongside other Egyptian and Canaanite artifacts, many of which have never been displayed before. The exhibition will include seals of the pharaohs, Egyptian statues, ritual vessels and other examples of Egypt's cultural influence on Israel.
"If she put it in her pocket and kept it, we wouldn't know about it," Yoli Schwartz, a spokesperson for the IAA, tells the New York Times' Jonathan Wolfe. "We're very happy to show it to the public."
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Only a few statues remain, with thousands of priceless artefacts from Nubian and Kushite kingdoms missing
Videos of Sudan's national museum showing empty rooms, piles of rubble and broken artefacts posted on social media after the Sudanese army recaptured the area from the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in recent days show the extent of looting of the country's antiquities.
Fears of looting in the museum were first raised in June 2023 and a year later satellite images emerged of trucks loaded with artefacts leaving the building, according to museum officials. But last week, as the RSF were driven out of Khartoum after two years of war, the full extent of the theft became apparent.
A video shared by the Sudan Tribune newspaper showed the museum stripped bare, with only a few large statues remaining, including the seven-tonne statue of King Taharqa, a pharaoh who ruled Egypt and Kush (present-day Sudan) from 690 to 664BC. Others showed ransacked rooms and smashed display cabinets.
The museum held an estimated 100,000 artefacts from thousands of years of the country's history, including the Nubian kingdom, the Kushite empire and through to the Christian and Islamic eras. It held mummies dating from 2500BC, making them among the oldest and archaeologically most important in the world.
Elnzeer Tirab Abaker Haroun, a curator at the Ethnographic Museum in Khartoum, said a specialist team visited the site after the RSF were expelled to assess the damage, which they will be documenting in a report.
"The tragedy was immense," he said. "Most of the museum's rare artefacts, as well as its precious gold and precious stones, have been lost."
The theft includes not only items on public display but those held inside a fortified room, including gold, which it is feared have been smuggled out of the country for sale abroad.
Unesco, the UN's cultural agency, has previously called on art dealers not to trade, import or export artefacts smuggled out of Sudan.
The scale of the damage to the museum and Sudan's heritage has been felt deeply by Sudanese.
"Seeing the Sudan National Museum being looted and destroyed by RSF was one of the most painful crimes … I felt ashamed and angry," said Hala al-Karib, a prominent Sudanese women's rights activist.
As a student, Karib and her friends would walk through the building admiring the artefacts from ancient kingdoms and jokingly posing as if they were themselves the queens depicted.
She first started visiting the museum with her father and, when she became a parent herself, took her own daughter there almost weekly.
"It was very personal; we are proud people and continually inspired by our ancient civilisation – it is the heritage we pass on to our children and grandchildren."
Many view it as a tragedy emblematic of the loss the country has suffered since the war started in 2023 during a power struggle between the army commander, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the RSF's leader, Mohamed Hamdan Dagolo
Shahenda Suliman, a Sudanese trade unionist, said: "Whilst the human tragedy of this war outweighs everything for me, there's a symbolism there in seeing emptiness where these grand objects once stood that sort of captures the scale of destruction, loss and emptying of the country that we've seen since the war started.
"There are artefacts that have survived every plague, invasion and occupation for millennia, and predate the birth of Christ, that didn't survive this war."
Dallia Mohamed Abdelmoniem, a former journalist displaced from Khartoum by the war, said the loss of the museum's heritage was especially significant as an appreciation of Sudan's ancient history has become more widespread only recently.
She highlighted how the term Kandaka – a title for queens from the ancient kingdom of Kush – was used to describe female activists who participated in the 2018 protest movement that ousted the dictator Omar al-Bashir.
"I don't know how we'll be able to replace these priceless historical artefacts – and if there's a will to do so," said Abdelmoniem.
"The majority of Sudanese have been adversely affected on so many levels by this war, the restoration and return of items of historical, cultural and ancient significance I fear may not be viewed as a priority."
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A Polish-Egyptian archaeological mission completed the next phase of work in the tomb of Pharaoh Shepseskaf, located in the Saqqara necropolis near Cairo. Shepseskaf was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, believed to have ascended the throne after Menkaure died in 2503 BC. Unlike his predecessor, who was interred within a pyramid at Giza, Shepseskaf was buried in a mastaba, a rectangular, flat-roofed tomb known as Mastabat al-Fir'aun, or the "Bench of the Pharaoh."
The 99.6-meter-by-74.4-meter tomb has an underground network of chambers and passageways, including an antechamber and the main burial chamber. Initially excavated in the 1920s, the site provided information that the burial chamber had been looted in ancient times, with only fragments of the royal sarcophagus remaining.
Recent excavations conducted by the Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IKŚiO PAN), in collaboration with Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, have focused on a detailed investigation of the burial chamber. The team was able to recover most of the fragments of the destroyed sarcophagus, allowing for partial reconstruction. In addition, they employed advanced 3D scanning technology to create a digital model of the internal structure of the tomb and performed geophysical surveys to map the layout of the processional ramp and its surroundings.
"In the current excavation season, scientists conducted archaeological research in the burial chamber and adjacent rooms, as well as in the chapel located on the eastern side of the mastaba. In turn, conservators managed to collect many fragments of the destroyed royal sarcophagus and begin its reconstruction," stated the Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
The "Pharaoh's Mastaba" mission has been supported by donors, entrepreneurs, and Poland's Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MNiSW).
The continuation of the project is hoped to uncover more of the hidden areas of Shepseskaf's burial complex and prove invaluable in understanding the whole Saqqara necropolis. With the synergy of advanced technology and archaeological methods, the team hopes to reconstruct the historical and cultural significance of the tomb of this enigmatic pharaoh.
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Fig. 1. Plan of Tombos Cemetery (Highlighting the three main cemetery areas: North, West, and East; Illustrating examples of tumulus and pyramid burial structures).
Fig. 2. Units 6 and 7 in the Northern Cemetery, with detail of burials in the Unit 7 tomb. Photos of pottery from the tomb, including a Nubian style blacktopped redware bowl and the Ushabti of Tahut in situ (prepared by Smith).
Fig. 3. Unit 36, shaft 2 in the Western Cemetery showing burials in the shaft and main chamber. Photos of scarabs from modest burials and one of four canopic jars dedicated to the Lector Priest Hapi, an Egyptian alabaster cosmetic vessel, and silver mounted scarab ring from the main burial chamber (prepared by Smith).
Fig. 4. Unit 27 in the Eastern Cemetery showing the scattered remains of the tumulus and its shaft and side chamber burials. Photo of amulets of Egyptian deities from the tomb, including smaller amulets of the Eye of Horus, Bes, and Pataikos likely associated with Burial 2, and a four high quality amulets likely associated with Burial 1, including a large scarab, two different versions of Isis, and an elaborate Pataikos with a goddess behind him (prepared by Smith).
Table 1. List of entheseal changes analyzed.
| Enthesis | Attachment | Biomechanical Function |
|---|---|---|
| M. supraspinatus/ M. infraspinatus | Greater tubercle of humerus | Arm abduction and rotation |
| M. subscapularis | Lesser tubercle of humerus | Arm rotation |
| M. teres minor | Greater tubercle of humerus | Arm rotation, adduction, extension |
| Common extensors origin | Lateral epicondyle of humerus | Wrist and finger abduction, adduction, extension |
| Common flexors origin | Medial epicondyle of humerus | Forearm pronation; wrist flexion and abduction; finger flexion |
| M. triceps brachii | Olecranon process of ulna | Forearm extension |
| M. brachialis | Coronoid process of ulna | Elbow flexion |
| M. biceps brachii | Radial tuberosity | Elbow flexion and forearm supination |
| M. brachioradialis | Radial styloid process | Elbow flexion |
| M. semimembranosus/ M. semitendinosus/ M. biceps femoris | Ischial tuberosity of os coxae | Hip extension; knee flexion and lateral rotation |
| M. gluteus medius | Greater trochanter of femur (anterior aspect) | Hip abduction and medial rotation |
| M. gluteus minimus | Greater trochanter of femur (lateral aspect) | Hip abduction and medial rotation |
| M. iliopsoas | Lesser trochanter of femur | Hip flexion |
| M. gastrocnemius | Femoral condyles | Foot and knee flexion |
| M. quadratus femoris | Intertrochanteric crest of femur | Lateral rotation and adduction of thigh |
| Patellar ligament | Tibial tuberosity | Leg flexion and extension |
| M. popliteus | Medial surface of proximal tibia | Knee rotation and flexion |
Table 2. Qualitative assessment of entheseal changes.
| Empty Cell | Mean Entheseal Changes Score |
|---|---|
| Very High | +2 |
| High | 1.5–2 |
| Low | 1–1.5 |
| Very Low | <1 |
Table 3. Demographic distribution of tombos sample.
| Empty Cell | Western | Northern | Eastern | Total | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | Male | Female | Male | Female | Male | ||
| Young | 9 | 7 | 8 | 11 | 11 | 6 | 52 |
| Middle | 7 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 4 | 27 |
| Old | 4 | 10 | 6 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 26 |
| Total | 44 | 32 | 34 | 110 | |||
Table 4. Entheseal changes mean scores.
| Empty Cell | Left | p-value | F | Right | p-value | F | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western | Northern | Eastern | Western | Northern | Eastern | |||||
| M. supraspinatus/ M. infraspinatus | 1.280 | 0.580 | 0.930 | 0.481 | 0.742 | 1.570 | 0.730 | 1.270 | 0.609 | 0.501 |
| M. subscapularis | 2.000 | 0.800 | 1.040 | 0.059 | 3.003 | 1.430 | 1.360 | 1.480 | 0.792 | 0.234 |
| M. teres minor | 1.440 | 0.750 | 0.700 | 0.327 | 1.141 | 1.150 | 1.880 | 0.940 | 0.073 | 2.761 |
| Common extensors origin | 2.090 | 1.330 | 1.800 | 0.378 | 0.988 | 1.610 | 2.000 | 1.740 | 0.297 | 1.239 |
| Common flexors origin | 1.360 | 0.600 | 0.830 | 0.089 | 2.507 | 1.000 | 0.790 | 1.110 | 0.232 | 1.502 |
| M. triceps brachii | 1.500 | 0.770 | 1.090 | 0.083 | 2.567 | 2.000 | 1.250 | 1.000 | 0.003 | 6.144 |
| M. brachialis | 2.140 | 1.410 | 1.330 | 0.017 | 3.582 | 1.630 | 1.450 | 1.180 | 0.405 | 0.915 |
| M. biceps brachii | 1.620 | 2.000 | 1.030 | 0.010 | 4.943 | 1.720 | 1.890 | 1.260 | 0.152 | 1.934 |
| M. brachioradialis | 1.700 | 1.210 | 0.960 | 0.131 | 2.103 | 1.730 | 1.330 | 1.190 | 0.758 | 0.279 |
| M. semimembranosus/ M. semitendinosus/ M. biceps femoris | 2.740 | 2.180 | 2.260 | 0.848 | 0.165 | 2.910 | 1.940 | 2.030 | 0.453 | 0.800 |
| M. gluteus medius | 1.800 | 1.110 | 1.270 | 0.454 | 0.801 | 1.570 | 1.160 | 1.600 | 0.498 | 0.705 |
| M. gluteus minimus | 1.820 | 1.120 | 1.460 | 0.362 | 0.525 | 2.260 | 1.220 | 1.190 | 0.027 | 3.824 |
| M. iliopsoas | 1.170 | 1.000 | 1.030 | 0.979 | 0.021 | 1.300 | 0.890 | 1.070 | 0.847 | 0.166 |
| M. gastrocnemius | 1.430 | 1.070 | 1.280 | 0.869 | 0.140 | 1.200 | 0.790 | 1.160 | 0.646 | 0.441 |
| M. quadratus femoris | 1.470 | 0.780 | 1.130 | 0.271 | 1.334 | 1.960 | 0.830 | 1.110 | 0.002 | 6.915 |
| Patellar ligament | 1.940 | 0.700 | 1.520 | 0.040 | 3.450 | 1.950 | 1.000 | 1.540 | 0.124 | 2.161 |
| M. popliteus | 0.940 | 0.330 | 0.540 | 0.045 | 3.317 | 0.920 | 0.500 | 0.560 | 0.156 | 1.916 |
Fig. 5. Upper body average score categories by cemetery area.
Fig. 6. Lower body average score categories by cemetery area.
Fig. 7. Upper body average entheseal score by body position.
Fig. 8. Lower body average entheseal score by body position.
Supplementary Data 1.
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